Appendices
Appendix A. Quick Reference
The seven classes
| symbol | say it | region | consonants |
|---|---|---|---|
| Φ | phi | the lips | p, b, f, v, w at the start of a syllable |
| Θ | theta | the teeth | t, d, th (think, that) |
| Χ | chi ("kai") | the back | k, g, h (house), Spanish j |
| Σ | sigma | the hiss | s, z (zoo), sh, ch (church), j/dge (judge) |
| Λ | lambda | the flowing ones | l, r |
| Ϻ | san | the closed hum | m |
| Ξ | xi ("ksai") | the open hum | n, ng (sing), Spanish ñ |
Borderline case: the y of yes (and the Spanish ll and y). Write it in parentheses; don't force it into a class.
How to get a code, in three steps
- Root. Strip endings and prefixes: -ing, -ed, -s, -tion, -ly, -ness, re-, un-, dis-…
- Skeleton. Write down the consonants of the root as they sound, in order.
- Classes. Swap each consonant for its symbol.
Sound rules for English
- Silent letters don't count: knight n·t, write r·t, lamb l·m.
- One sound, several spellings: c, k, ck, q → k → Χ. ph → f → Φ. The gh of laugh → f; the gh of night is silent.
- th is one sound → Θ. x → k·s → Χ · Σ.
- Double letters count once: cherry ch·r.
- sh, ch, j, dge → Σ (read by where they end).
- ng → Ξ. English h → Χ. w at the start of a syllable (water) → Φ.
- The r after a vowel depends on the accent: US English counts it (mother m·th·r), much of England doesn't (mother m·th).
Rules for Spanish words
- The h is silent: it doesn't count.
- j, and g before e or i, sound like a strong h → Χ.
- c before e or i, and z → s in Latin America (Σ), th in most of Spain (Θ).
- qu → k → Χ. rr → one Λ. ch → Σ. ñ → Ξ.
- ll and y → borderline case.
- The i and u in diphthongs (tierra, rueda) are vowels: they don't count.
Notation
| written | means |
|---|---|
| p · d · r | a skeleton: real consonants |
| Φ · Θ · Λ | a code: classes, in order |
| {Φ, Θ, Λ} | a nucleus: the same classes, without order |
| *tréyes | a reconstructed word, not written in any document |
Six questions before you believe a connection
- Did I check it in an etymological dictionary?
- Is it the same family of languages?
- Am I adding up classes?
- Did I count the words that don't fit?
- Am I saying it as a finding or as a reading?
- Would it survive someone who doesn't think like me?